Women's Representation in Politics: Impression Management Strategies in Responding to Gender-Based Challenges Among Female Politicians in Indonesia
Downloads
Women's political representation in Indonesia continues to face gender-based challenges, including social expectations, leadership stereotypes, and pressures related to multiple roles. This study aims to explore how female politicians interpret and respond to these challenges through impression management strategies, and how they develop psychological resilience within a gender-biased political environment. Using a qualitative case study approach, data were collected through in-depth interviews with six female politicians from various political levels and party backgrounds. The findings reveal that female politicians are aware of the conflicting expectations they face—being expected to appear feminine while simultaneously demonstrating assertiveness as leaders. In response, they employ various impression management strategies such as ingratiation, exemplification, and self-promotion in an adaptive and context-sensitive manner, aligned with conservative and religious sociopolitical settings. Despite emotional pressures stemming from gender stereotypes, they exhibit resilience through social support, emotion regulation, and strong intrinsic motivation. This study highlights that impression management is not merely a tool for maintaining public image but also a means of negotiating gender identity and roles within political spaces. These findings contribute to a deeper understanding of the psychological dynamics of female leadership and support the development of a more inclusive and gender-equitable political environment.
Afifah, N. F. (2024, July 24). Economic inequality shapes the lack of public support for women's political representation in Indonesia. Populi Center. https://populicenter.org/2024/07/24/economic-inequality-shapes-the-lack-of-public-support-for-womens-political-representation-in-indonesia/
Alamona, J., Zakarias, J. D., & Kawung, E. J. R. (2017). Marginalisasi Gender Dalam Pengambilan Keputusan. HOLISTIK, Journal of Social and Culture. https://ejournal.unsrat.ac.id/index.php/holistik/article/view/18047
Ajzen, I. (1991). The theory of planned behavior. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 50(2), 179–211.
Alpi, K. M., & Evans, J. J. (2019). Distinguishing case study as a research method from case reports as a publication type. Journal of the Medical Library Association JMLA, 107(1). https://doi.org/10.5195/jmla.2019.615
Anshori, S. (2012). Fitrah Manusia dan Pendidikan Islam. Yogyakarta: Pustaka Pelajar.
Appelbaum, S. H., & Hughes, B. (1998). Ingratiation as a political tactic: Effects within the organization. Management Decision, 36(2), 85–95. APA PsyNet. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1108/00251749810204160
Arisa, I. N., Privia, M., Musa, D. T. H., & Junida, D. S. (2025). Women’s political leadership: An analysis of gender equality in legislators in Sekadau. Jurnal Sosiologi Dialektika Sosial, 11(1), 45-62. https://ojs.unimal.ac.id/index.php/dialektika/article/view/16522
Bacchi, C. (2009). Analysing policy: What’s the problem represented to be? Pearson Education.
Badan Pengembangan dan Pembinaan Bahasa. (2025). Kamus Besar Bahasa Indonesia (KBBI VI). Jakarta: Kementerian Pendidikan dan Kebudayaan.
Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive theory. Prentice-Hall.
Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. W. H. Freeman.
Bauer, N. M. (2015). The Effects of Counterstereotypic Gender Strategies on Candidate Evaluations. Political Psychology, 36(2), 225-242.
Bauer, N. M. (2019). Bauer, N. M. (2019). Gender stereotyping in political decision making. Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Politics.
Bem, S. L. (1974). The measurement of psychological androgyny. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 42(2), 155–162. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/h0036215
Bem, S. L. (1981). Gender schema theory: A cognitive account of sex typing. Psychological Review, 88(4), 354–364. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/0033-295X.88.4.354
Berger, R. (2015). Now I see it, now I don’t: Researcher’s position and reflexivity in qualitative research. Qualitative Research, 15(2), 219-234. https://doi.org/10.1177/1468794112468475
Bicchieri, C. (2006). The grammar of society: The nature and dynamics of social norms. Cambridge University Press.
Bjarnegård, E., & Zetterberg, P. (2016). Gender equality reforms on an uneven playing field: Candidate selection and quota implementation in electoral authoritarian Tanzania. Government and Opposition, 51(3), 464–486. https://doi.org/10.1017/gov.2016.10
Bjarnegård, E., & Kenny, M. (2015). Revealing the “Secret Garden”: the informal dimensions of political recruitment. Politics & Gender, 11(4), 748–753.
https://doi.org/10.1017/s1743923x15000471
Bodla, M. A., & Danish, R.Q. (2013). The Use of Influence Tactics in Politicized Organizations: A Look from Gender Perspective. Information Management and Business Review Vol. 5, No. 9, pp. 456-462, Sep 2013 (ISSN 2220-3796). University of the Punjab. ResearchGate.
Bourdieu, P. (1991). Language and Symbolic Power. Harvard University Press.
Brands, R., & Rattan, A. (2024, February 21). We should stop talking about implicit gender bias – here’s why. UCL School of Management Blog. https://www.mgmt.ucl.ac.uk/blog/we-should-stop-talking-about-implicit-gender-bias-heres-why
Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2006). Using thematic analysis in psychology. Qualitative Research in Psychology, 3(2), 77-101. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1191/1478088706qp063oa
Brescoll, V. L. (2011). Who takes the floor and why. Administrative Science Quarterly, 56(4), 622–641. https://doi.org/10.1177/0001839212439994
Brescoll, V. L., & Uhlmann, E. L. (2008). Can an angry woman get ahead? Status conferral, gender, and expression of emotion in the workplace. Psychological Science, 19(3), 268–275. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9280.2008.02079.x
Brinkmann, S., & Kvale, S. (2015). InterViews: Learning the Craft of Qualitative Research Interviewing (3rd ed.). Sage Publications.
Brown, C. S., & Jewell, J. A. (2019). 14.6 gender. Pressbooks.
https://www.saskoer.ca/introductiontopsychology/chapter/gender/
Burns, G. (2023). Experimental evidence on leadership experience and women’s political participation in Malaysia. SIGMA, Brigham Young University. https://scholarsarchive.byu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1333&context=sigma
Bursztyn, L., Cappelen, A. W., Tungodden, B., Voena, A., & Yanagizawa-Drott, D. H. (2023). How are gender norms perceived? National Bureau of Economic Research. https://www.nber.org/papers/w31049
Bystrom, D. G. (2020). Gender and political communication. The International Encyclopedia of Gender, Media, and Communication, 1–6. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781119429128.iegmc206
Carli, L. L., & Eagly, A. H. (1999). Gender effects on social influence and emergent leadership. In G. N. Powell (Ed.), Handbook of gender and work (pp. 203–222). Sage Publications. Inc.
Caul, M. (1999). Women’s representation in Parliament. Party Politics, 5(1), 79–98. https://doi.org/10.1177/1354068899005001005
Celis, K., Childs, S., Kantola, J., & Krook, M. L. (2008). Rethinking women's substantive representation. Representation, 44(2), 99–110. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00344890802079573
Childs, S., & Webb, P. (2011). Sex, Gender and the Conservative Party. Springer.
Chionardes, C.A., Priyowidodo, G., & Rusdiyanto, M. (2019). Strategi Impression Management Grace Natalie sebagai Pemimpin Partai Politik melalui Akun Instagram @Gracenat. Universitas Kristen Petra Surabaya.
Cialdini, R. B., & Goldstein, N. J. (2004). Social influence: Compliance and conformity. Annual Review of Psychology, 55, 591–621.
https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1146/annurev.psych.55.090902.142015
Cohen, S., & Wills, T. A. (1985). Stress, social support, and the buffering hypothesis. Psychological Bulletin, 98(2), 310–357.
Connell, R. W. (1987). Gender and power: Society, the person and sexual politics. Stanford University Press. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/0033-2909.98.2.310
Corbett, C., Voelkel, J. G., Cooper, M., & Willer, R. (2022). Pragmatic bias impedes women’s access to political leadership. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 119(6). https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2112616119
Cornwall, A., & Goetz, A. M. (2005). Democratizing democracy: Feminist perspectives. Democratization, 12(5), 783–800. https://doi.org/10.1080/13510340500322105
Cowper-Smith, Y., Kopec, A., Sutton, T., & Nelson, K. (2017, May 31). Women and Politics: Overcoming Barriers to participation in leadership. University of Guelph. https://atrium.lib.uoguelph.ca/items/9f67e39f-7d7f-439f-bf40-f5599175a16e
Creswell, J. W. (2014). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches (4th ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications.
Creswell, J. W., & Poth, C. N. (2018). Qualitative inquiry and research design: Choosing among five approaches (4th ed.). Sage.
Dahlerup, D. (2006). Women, quotas and politics. Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203099544
Dahlerup, D. (2006). The story of the theory of critical mass. Politics & Gender, 2(4), 511-522. Cambridge University Press. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S1743923X0624114X
Dahlerup, D., & Freidenvall, L. (2005). Quotas as a “Fast Track” to Equal Representation for Women: Why Scandinavia is No Longer the Model. International Feminist Journal of Politics, 7(1), 26-48. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/1461674042000324673
Dahlerup, D. (2005). Strategies to enhance women’s political representation in different electoral systems. Gender, Governance and Democracy, Manila: Isis.
Dahlerup, D., & Freidenvall, L. (2005). Quotas as a ‘fast track’to equal representation for women: Why Scandinavia is no longer the model. International feminist journal of politics, 7(1), 26-48. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/1461674042000324673
Dannals, J. E., & Li, Y. (2024). A theoretical framework for social norm perception. Research in Organizational Behavior, 100211. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.riob.2024.100211
Denzin, N. K., & Lincoln, Y. S. (Eds.). (2017). The Handbook of Qualitative Research (5th ed.). SAGE Publications.
Derks, B., van Laar, C., & Ellemers, N. (2016). The queen bee phenomenon: Why women leaders distance themselves from junior women. The Leadership Quarterly, 27(3), 456-469.
Diekman, A. B., & Eagly, A. H. (2008). Of men, women, and motivation: A role congruity account. In J. Y. Shah & W. L. Gardner (Eds.), Handbook of motivation science (pp. 434–447). The Guilford Press.
Dra?e, S., Dolarevi?, V., & Šaši?, E. (2025). How stereotype threat influences cognitive performance: It all depends on how you feel! International Review of Social Psychology, 38(1). https://doi.org/10.5334/irsp.976
Dukes, S. (1984). Phenomenological methodology in the human sciences. Journal of Religion and Health, 23(3), 197–203. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00990785
Eagly, A. H., & Carli, L. L. (2003). The female leadership advantage: An evaluation of the evidence. The Leadership Quarterly, 14(6), 807–834. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.leaqua.2003.09.004
Eagly, A. H., & Carli, L. L. (2007). Through the labyrinth: The truth about how women become leaders. Harvard Business School Press.
Eagly, A. H., & Johannesen-Schmidt, M. C. (2001). The leadership styles of women and men. Journal of Social Issues, 57(4), 781–797. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1111/0022-4537.00241
Eagly, A. H., & Karau, S. J. (2002). Role congruity theory of prejudice toward female leaders. Psychological Review, 109(3), 573–598. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/0033-295X.109.3.573
Eagly, A. H., & Sczesny, S. (2009). Stereotypes about women, men, and leaders: Have times changed? In M. Barreto, M. K. Ryan, & M. T. Schmitt (Eds.), The glass ceiling in the 21st century: Understanding barriers to gender equality (pp. 21–47). American Psychological Association. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/11863-002
Eagly, A. H., & Wood, W. (1999). The origins of sex differences in human behavior: Evolved dispositions versus social roles. American psychologist, 54(6), 408. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/0003-066X.54.6.408
Eagly, A. H., Makhijani, M. G., & Klonsky, B. G. (1992). Gender and the evaluation of leaders: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 111(1), 3–22. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/0033-2909.111.1.3
Ely, R. J., Ibarra, H., & Kolb, D. M. (2011). Taking gender into account: Theory and design for women’s leadership development programs. Academy of Management Learning & Education, 10(3), 474–493. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.5465/amle.2010.0046
Filzi, J. I. (2019). Taktik Impression Management Presiden Joko Widodo Melalui Akun Twitter @Jokowi. Universitas Bhayangkara Jakarta.
Fiske, S. T., Cuddy, A. J. C., Glick, P., & Xu, J. (2002). A model of (often mixed) stereotype content: Competence and warmth respectively follow from perceived status and competition. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 82(6), 878–902. https://doi.org/ https://doi.org/10.1037//0022-3514.82.6.878
Folkman, S. (2008). The case for positive emotions in the stress process. Anxiety Stress & Coping, 21(1), 3–14. https://doi.org/10.1080/10615800701740457
Foschi, M. (1992). Gender and double standards for competence. In Springer eBooks (pp. 181–207). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4757-2199-7_8
Fox, R. L., & Lawless, J. L. (2011). Gendered perceptions and political candidacies: A central barrier to women's equality in electoral politics. American Journal of Political Science, 55(1), 59–73.
Franceschet, S., Krook, M. L., & Piscopo, J. M. (Eds.). (2012). The impact of gender quotas. Oxford University Press. https://mlkrook.org/pdf/FKP%20APSA%202009.pdf
Gender and Development Network. (2019). Women’s political participation and leadership. https://gadnetwork.org/issues/womens-political-participation-and-leadership
George, R. (2019). Gender norms and women’s political participation: Global trends and findings on norm change. ALIGN Platform. https://www.alignplatform.org/resources/gender-norms-and-womens-political-participation-global-trends-and-findings-norm-change
Giorgi, A. (2009). The descriptive phenomenological method in psychology: A modified Husserlian approach. Duquesne University Press.
Goffman, E. (1959). The presentation of self in everyday life. New York: Anchor Books.
Greenhaus, J. H., & Beutell, N. J. (1985). Sources and conflict between work and family roles. The Academy of Management Review, 10(1), 76–88. https://doi.org/10.2307/258214
Gross, J. J. (1998). The emerging field of emotion regulation: An integrative review. Review of General Psychology, 2(3), 271–299. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/1089-2680.2.3.271
Gross, J. J., & John, O. P. (2003). Individual differences in two emotion regulation processes: Implications for affect, relationships, and well-being. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 85(2), 348–362. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.85.2.348
Glick, P., & Fiske, S. T. (2001). An ambivalent alliance: Hostile and benevolent sexism as complementary justifications for gender inequality. American Psychologist, 56(2), 109–118. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.56.2.109
Guest, G., Bunce, A., & Johnson, L. (2005). How many interviews are enough? Field Methods, 18(1), 59–82. https://doi.org/10.1177/1525822x05279903
Gumiandari, S. (2020). Psikologi dan kekuasaan: Studi keterlibatan politik perempuan Cirebon dalam perspektif psikologi politik. CV. Zenius Publishing. https://repository.syekhnurjati.ac.id/4196/
Haraldsson, A., & Wängnerud, L. (2019). The effect of media sexism on women’s political ambition: evidence from a worldwide study. Feminist media studies, 19(4), 525-541. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/14680777.2018.1468797
Hargrave, L. (2022). The influence of gender stereotypes on politicians' behaviour and voter attitudes [Doctoral dissertation, University College London]. UCL Discovery. https://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/id/eprint/10157797/
Haslam, S. (2012). Psychology in Organizations: The Social Identity approach. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781446278819
Heilman, M. E. (2001). Description and prescription: How gender stereotypes prevent women's ascent up the organizational ladder. Journal of Social Issues, 57(4), 657–674. https://doi.org/10.1111/0022-4537.00234
Heise, L., Greene, M. E., Opper, N., Stavropoulou, M., Harper, C., Nascimento, M., Zewdie, D., Darmstadt, G. L., Greene, M. E., Hawkes, S., Heise, L., Henry, S., Heymann, J., Klugman, J., Levine, R., Raj, A., & Gupta, G. R. (2019). Gender inequality and restrictive gender norms: framing the challenges to health. The Lancet, 393(10189), 2440–2454. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0140-6736(19)30652-x
Hermawati, Y. (2012) Pengelolaan Kesan dalam Komunikasi Politik: Upaya Peningkatan Peran Perempuan di DPR-RI dalam Pencapaian MDGS 2015. Seminar Nasional FISIP-UT. https://repository.ut.ac.id/2467/1/fisip201216.pdf
Hochschild, A. R. (1983). The managed heart: Commercialization of human feeling. University of California Press.
Hochschild, A. R., & Machung, A. (2012). The second shift: Working families and the revolution at home (Rev. ed.). Penguin Books. https://sjcsociology.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/01/hochschild_second-shift_12.pdf
Hofstede, G. (2001). Culture's consequences: Comparing values, behaviors, institutions and organizations across nations (2nd ed.). SAGE Publications.
Holoien, S. D., & Fiske, S.T. (2013). Downplaying Positive Impressions: Compensation Between Warmth and Competence in Impression Management. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 49(1):33–41. ResearchGate. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2012.09.001
Hoyt, C. L., & Murphy, S. E. (2016). Managing to clear the air: Stereotype threat, women, and leadership. The Leadership Quarterly, 27(3), 387–399. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1016/j.leaqua.2015.11.002
Huddy, L., & Terkildsen, N. (1993). The consequences of gender stereotypes for women candidates at different levels and types of office. Political Research Quarterly, 46(3), 503–525. https://doi.org/10.1177/106591299304600304
International Institute for Democracy and Electoral Assistance. (2022, March 4). Break the financial bias: Levelling the playing field for women in politics through political finance measures. International IDEA. https://www.idea.int/news/break-financial-bias-levelling-playing-field-women-politics-through-political-finance-measures
Inglehart, R., & Norris, P. (2003). Rising tide: Gender equality and cultural change around the world. Cambridge University Press.
Islam, U. N. (2018). Impression Management Pejabat Publik Dalam Media Sosial. Analisis Isi Kualitatif Deskriptif Pengelolaan Kesan Walikota Bandung Ridwan Kamil Melalui Unggahan Foto Dan Video Dalam Akun IG @ridwankamil. Universitas Muhammadiyah Surakarta.
Jandevi, U. (2019). Communication strategy to improve women’s political participation in Indonesia. International Journal of Communication and Society, 1(2), 68–81. https://doi.org/10.31763/ijcs.v1i2.46
Johns, M., Inzlicht, M., & Schmader, T. (2008). Stereotype threat and executive resource depletion: Examining the influence of emotion regulation. Journal of Experimental Psychology General, 137(4), 691–705. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0013834
Jones, E. E., & Pittman, T. S. (1982). Toward a general theory of strategic self-presentation. In J. Suls (Ed.), Psychological Perspectives on the Self, Vol. 1, (pp. 231–262). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Julie. (2023, December 4). Gender Roles: Psychology Definition, History & Examples. Zimbardo. https://www.zimbardo.com/gender-roles-psychology-definition-history-examples/
Kallio, H., Pietilä, A. M., Johnson, M., & Kangasniemi, M. (2016). Systematic methodological review: Developing a framework for a qualitative semi?structured interview guide. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 72(12), 2954–2965. https://doi.org/ https://doi.org/10.1111/jan.13031
Karelaia, N., & Guillén, L. (2014). Me, a woman and a leader: Positive social identity and identity conflict. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 125(2), 204–219. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.obhdp.2014.08.002
Kark, R., Waismel-Manor, R., & Shamir, B. (2012). Does valuing androgyny and femininity lead to a female advantage? The relationship between gender-role, transformational leadership and identification. The Leadership Quarterly, 23(3), 620–640. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.leaqua.2011.12.012
Kementerian Pendidikan, Kebudayaan, Riset, dan Teknologi. (n.d.). Fitrah. Kamus Besar Bahasa Indonesia. https://kbbi.kemdikbud.go.id/entri/fitrah
Kenny, M., & Verge, T. (2013). Decentralization, political parties, and women’s representation: Evidence from Spain and Britain. Publius: The Journal of Federalism, 43(1), 109-128. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/publius/pjs023
Kittilson, M. C., & Schwindt-Bayer, L. A. (2012). The gendered effects of electoral institutions: Political engagement and participation. Oxford University.
Kobayashi, M., Fukuda, N., Ichikura, K., & Asakura, T. (2018). University Students’ Self-Rated Ability to interpret social context and correlating factors. Psychology, 09(06), 1546–1557. https://doi.org/10.4236/psych.2018.96093
Komives, S. R., Owen, J. E., Longerbeam, S. D., Mainella, F. C., & Osteen, L. (2005). Developing a leadership identity: A grounded theory. Journal of College Student Development, 46(6), 593–611. http://dx.doi.org/10.1353/csd.2005.0061
Kristina, D. (2024). Komunikasi persuasif calon legislatif perempuan pada kampanye Pemilu 2024 (Studi fenomenologi pada caleg perempuan di Jawa Barat). Jurnal Manajemen Pendidikan dan Ilmu Sosial, 6(1), 168–173. https://doi.org/10.38035/jmpis.v6i1.3284
Krook, M. L. (2010). Quotas for women in politics: Gender and candidate selection reform worldwide. Oxford University Press.
Krook, M. L., & Norris, P. (2014). Beyond quotas: Strategies to promote gender equality in elected office. Political Studies, 62(1_suppl), 2–20. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/1467-9248.12116
Krook, M. L., & O’Brien, D. Z. (2012). All the President’s Men? The Appointment of Female Cabinet Ministers Worldwide. The Journal of Politics, 74(3), 840–855. https://doi.org/ https://doi.org/10.1017/s0022381612000382
Landtsheer, C.D., Vries, P.D., & Vertessen, D. (2008). Political Impression Management: How Metaphors, Sound Bites, Appearance Effectiveness, and Personality Traits Can Win Elections. Journal of Political Marketing. ResearchGate. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/15377850802005083
Lawless, J. L., & Fox, R. L. (2010). It still takes a candidate: Why women don't run for office (Rev. ed.). Cambridge University.
https://assets.cambridge.org/97805217/62526/frontmatter/9780521762526_frontmatter.pdf
Lazarus, R. S., & Folkman, S. (1984). Stress, appraisal, and coping. Springer.
Leary, M. R., & Kowalski, R. M. (1990). Impression management: A literature review and two-component model. Psychological Bulletin, 107(1), 34–47. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/0033-2909.107.1.34
Lee, H., & An, S. (2024). Stereotype-driven emotional responses and their impact on discriminatory intentions towards suicidal individuals. BMC Psychology, 12(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-024-01633-9
Levine, J. M. (2012). Group processes and leadership. Group processes (pp. 195–219). Psychology Press.
Li, Y. (2024). Systemic and sociocultural factors impeding women’s political participation and leadership development: A Sociological inquiry. SHS Web of Conferences, 187, 03016. https://doi.org/10.1051/shsconf/202418703016
Lincoln, Y. S., S., & Guba, E. G., G. (1982). Establishing dependability and confirmability in naturalistic inquiry through an audit. In American Educational Research Association, Paper Presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association. https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED216019.pdf
Lincoln, Y. S., & Guba, E. G. (1985). Naturalistic inquiry. Sage.
Marschlich, S., & Storie L. (2022). Identity, Social Media and Politics: How Young Emirati Women Make Sense of Female Politicians in the UAE. The International Journal of Press/Politics. Vol. 27(4) 789–807. SAGE Journals. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/19401612221078795
Martin, R. A. (2007). The social psychology of humor. In Elsevier eBooks (pp. 113–152). https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-012372564-6/50024-1
Masten, A. S. (2001). Ordinary magic: Resilience processes in development. American Psychologist, 56(3), 227–238. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.56.3.227
Matud, M. P., Bethencourt, J. M., Ibáñez, I., Fortes, D., & Díaz, A. (2022). Gender differences in psychological well-being in emerging adulthood. Applied Research in Quality of Life, 17(2), 1001–1017. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11482-021-09943-5
Medical News Today. (2021, August 24). What are the psychological effects of gender inequality? https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/psychological-effects-of-gender-inequality
Moreno-Bella, E., Willis, G. B., Quiroga-Garza, A., & Moya, M. (2022). Economic inequality shapes the agency–communion content of gender stereotypes. Group Processes & Intergroup Relations, 26(5), 1075–1098. https://doi.org/10.1177/13684302221095338.
Morse, J. M. (1994). Designing funded qualitative research. In N. K. Denzin & Y. S. Lincoln (Eds.), Handbook of qualitative research (pp. 220–235). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications.
Moscovici, S. (1985). Social influence and conformity. In G. Lindzey & E. Aronson (Eds.), Handbook of social psychology (3rd ed., Vol. 2, pp. 347–412). Random House.
Moustakas, C. E. (1994). Phenomenological research methods. Sage Publications, Inc.
Moss-Racusin, C. A., Dovidio, J. F., Brescoll, V. L., Graham, M. J., & Handelsman, J. (2012). Science faculty's subtle gender biases favor male students. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 109(41), 16474–16479. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1211286109
Najwa Shihab. (2025, April 21). Between us, women | Mata Najwa [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ncrgmcsmNsg
Nelson, T. D. (2004). Ageism: Stereotyping and prejudice against older persons. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Norris, P., & Krook, M. L. (2010). Gender Equality in Elected Office: A Six-Step Action Plan. In Baseline Study for the OSCE/ODIHR Handbook on Measures to Promote Women’s Participation in Political Parties. OSCE Office for Democratic Institutions and Human Rights (ODIHR).
Nowell, L. S., Norris, J. M., White, D. E., & Moules, N. J. (2017). Thematic analysis: Striving to meet the trustworthiness criteria. International Journal of Qualitative Methods, 16(1), 1-13. https://doi.org/10.1177/1609406917733847
Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights. (n.d.). Gender stereotyping. United Nations. https://www.ohchr.org/en/women/gender-stereotyping
Okimoto, T. G., & Brescoll, V. L. (2010). The Price of Power: Power seeking and backlash against female politicians. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 36(7), 923–936. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167210371949
Pancawati, M. D. (2025, January 7). Potret Keterpilihan Perempuan di Pilkada 2024. Kompas.id. https://www.kompas.id/artikel/potret-keterpilihan-perempuan-di-pilkada-2024
Patton, M. Q. (2015). Qualitative research & evaluation methods: Integrating theory and practice. Sage.
Paxton, P., & Hughes, M. M. (2017). Women, Politics, and Power: A Global Perspective (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications.
Paxton, P., & Kunovich, S. (2003). Women’s political representation: The importance of political parties. American Sociological Review, 68(1), 73–94. https://www.jstor.org/stable/3598139
Phillips, A. (1995). The politics of presence. Oxford University Press.
Preece, J. R., & Stoddard, O. B. (2015). Why women don't run: Experimental evidence on gender differences in political candidacy. Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization, 117, 296–308.
Primadona, F., & Lenggogeni, S. (2023). “Kepala Putik” on Women: Perspectives and Challenges in Balancing the Dual Role as Mother and Worker in Indonesia. Sawwa: Jurnal Studi Gender, 19(1).
Primaresti, F., Aspinall, E., Hillman, B., & Prihatini, E. S. (2024). Menilik representasi perempuan dalam Pemilu 2024. The Indonesian Institute. https://www.theindonesianinstitute.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/INDONESIA-2024-Felia-Primaresti-Peneliti-Bidang-Politik-Menilik-Representasi-Perempuan-dalam-Pemilu-2024_web.pdf
Reicher, S., Spears, R., & Haslam, S. A. (2010). The social identity approach in social Psychology. In SAGE Publications Ltd eBooks (pp. 45–62). https://doi.org/10.4135/9781446200889.n4
Ridgeway, C. L. (2001). Gender, status, and leadership. Journal of Social Issues, 57(4), 637-655. https://doi.org/10.1111/0022-4537.00233
Ridgeway, C. L. (2011). Framed by gender: How gender inequality persists in the modern world. Oxford University Press.
Ridgeway, C. L., & Correll, S. J. (2004). Unpacking the gender system: A theoretical perspective on gender beliefs and social relations. Gender & Society, 18(4), 510-531. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1177/0891243204265269
Riyanto, T.V., Priyowidodo, G., & Aritonang, A.I. (2021). Strategi Impression Management Gubernur Jawa Tengah Ganjar Pranowo melalui Akun Twitter @Ganjarpranowo. Universitas Kristen Petra Surabaya.
Rosenberg, J., & Egbert, N. (2011). Online impression management: Personality traits and concerns for secondary goals as predictors of self?presentation tactics on Facebook. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 17(1), 1–18. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1083-6101.2011.01560.x
Rudman, L. A., & Glick, P. (2001). Prescriptive gender stereotypes and backlash toward agentic women. Journal of Social Issues, 57(4), 743–762. https://doi.org/10.1111/0022-4537.00239
Rudman, L. A., & Phelan, J. E. (2008). Backlash effects for disconfirming gender stereotypes in organizations. Research in Organizational Behavior, 28, 61–79. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.riob.2008.04.003
Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Intrinsic and extrinsic motivations: Classic definitions and new directions. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 25(1), 54–67. https://doi.org/10.1006/ceps.1999.1020
Sandelowski, M. (1995). Sample size in qualitative research. Research in Nursing & Health, 18(2), 179–183. https://doi.org/10.1002/nur.4770180211
Satrio, N. M. (2017). Taktik Impression Management Sandiaga Uno Melalui Akun Instagram @Sandiuno. Universitas Sebelas Maret.
Schieman, S., & Glavin, P. (2015). The Pressure-Status Nexus and blurred Work–Family boundaries. Work and Occupations, 43(1), 3–37. https://doi.org/10.1177/0730888415596051
Schmader, T., & Johns, M. (2003). Converging evidence that stereotype threat reduces working memory capacity. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 85(3), 440–452. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.85.3.440
Schneider, M. C., Holman, M. R., Diekman, A. B., & McAndrew, T. (2016). Power, conflict, and community: How gendered views of political power influence women's political ambition. Political Psychology, 37(4), 515–531. https://doi.org/10.1111/pops.12268
Schwindt-Bayer, L. A. (2010). Political power and women’s representation in Latin America. Oxford University Schwindt-Bayer, L. A. (2010). Political power and women’s representation in Latin America. Oxford University Press.
Setiawan, E. (n.d.). Arti kata unggah - Kamus Besar Bahasa Indonesia (KBBI) Online. https://www.kbbi.web.id/unggah
Shenton, A. K. (2004). Strategies for ensuring trustworthiness in qualitative research projects. Education for Information, 22(2), 63-75. http://dx.doi.org/10.3233/EFI-2004-22201
Siedharta, I., Indrayani, I. I., Monica, V. (2017). Strategi Impression Management Presiden Joko Widodo Melalui Komunikasi Program Prioritas Pemerintah Dalam Akun Youtube “Presiden Joko Widodo”. Universitas Kristen Petra Surabaya. DOI: https://doi.org/10.9744/scriptura.7.1.17-26
Singh, V., & Vinnicombe, S. (2001). Impression management, commitment and gender: European Management Journal, 19(2), 183–194. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0263-2373(00)00093-1
Sitorus, E., Priyowidodo, G., & Aritonang, A. I. (2024). Impression Management Strategy of Khofifah Indar Parawansa on Instagram Account @khofifah.ip. Journal of Content and Engagement, 2(2), 127–146. https://doi.org/10.9744/joce.2.2.127-146
Southern, R., & Harmer, E. (2019). Twitter, Incivility and “Everyday” Gendered othering: An analysis of tweets sent to UK members of Parliament. Social Science Computer Review, 39(2), 259–275. https://doi.org/10.1177/0894439319865519
Steele, C. M., & Aronson, J. (1995). Stereotype threat and the intellectual test performance of African Americans. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 69(5), 797–811. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.69.5.797
Stockemer, D. (2011). Women’s parliamentary representation in Africa: The impact of democracy and corruption on the number of female deputies in national parliaments. Political Studies, 59(3), 693–712. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9248.2011.00897.x
Sulistyo, P. D. (2019, March 19). Perempuan Masih Dipandang Rendah untuk Menjadi Pemimpin. www.kompas.id.
Surbakti, R. (2013). Memahami Ilmu Politik. Indonesia. Grasindo.
Swann, W. B. Jr. (1987). Identity negotiation: Where two roads meet. Swann, W. B. Jr. (1987). Identity negotiation: Where two roads meet. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 53(6), 1038–1051.
Tajfel, H., & Turner, J. C. (1979). An integrative theory of intergroup conflict. In W. G. Austin & S. Worchel (Eds.), The social psychology of intergroup relations (pp. 33-47). Monterey, CA: Brooks/Cole.
Tedeschi, J. T., & Melburg, V. (1984). Impression management and influence in the organization. In S. B. Bacharach & E. J. Lawler (Eds.), Research in the Sociology of Organizations, Vol. 3 (pp. 31–58). JAI Press.
Turner, J. C., Hogg, M. A., Oakes, P. J., Reicher, S. D., & Wetherell, M. S. (1987). Rediscovering the social group: A self-categorization theory. Basil Blackwell.
Turner, J. C., & Reynolds, K. J. (2012). Self-Categorization Theory. In SAGE Publications Ltd eBooks (pp. 399–417). https://doi.org/10.4135/9781446249222.n46
Turnley, W. H., & Bolino, M. C. (2001). Achieving desired images while avoiding undesired images: exploring the role of self-monitoring in impression management. Journal of applied psychology, 86(2), 351.
UN Women. (2013). Women’s leadership and political participation in brief. UN Women. https://www.unwomen.org/sites/default/files/Headquarters/Attachments/Sections/Library/Publications/2013/12/UN%20WomenLGThemBriefUSwebrev2%20pdf.pdf
UN Women. (2024). Facts and figures: Women's leadership and political participation. https://www.unwomen.org/en/articles/facts-and-figures/facts-and-figures-womens-leadership-and-political-participation
Undang-Undang Republik Indonesia Nomor 7 Tahun 2017 tentang Pemilihan Umum. (2017). https://peraturan.bpk.go.id/Details/37644/uu-no-7-tahun-2017
United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Western Asia. (n.d.). Gender norms. https://www.unescwa.org/sd-glossary/gender-norms
United Way of the National Capital Area. (2025, March 25). Gender roles and norms: What are they & how do they affect children? United Way NCA. https://unitedwaynca.org/blog/gender-norms/
Verge, T., & Claveria, S. (2016). Gendered political resources. Party Politics, 24(5), 536–548. https://doi.org/10.1177/1354068816663040
Wardani, S. B. E., & Subekti, V. S. (2021). Political dynasties and women candidates in Indonesia’s 2019 election. Journal of Current Southeast Asian Affairs, 40(1), 28–49. https://doi.org/10.1177/1868103421991144
Wibinata, G. R. (2021). Keterlibatan jaringan perempuan dalam tim sukses pasangan calon Mohammad Idris – Imam Budi Hartono pada Pemilihan Walikota dan Wakil Walikota Depok tahun 2020. Universitas Indonesia). https://www.researchgate.net/publication/354604219
Widianti, D., Hurriyah, Ramadhana, P., & Khairunnisa, A. (2024). Profil tematik: Potret keterpilihan anggota legislatif perempuan hasil Pemilu 2024. Kementerian Pemberdayaan Perempuan dan Perlindungan Anak Republik Indonesia. https://sahabatsetara.id/buku-profil-tematik-kpppa-2024/
Wildianti, D., & Ramadhana, P. (2024). Kekerasan terhadap politisi perempuan dalam Pemilu 2024: Ancaman bagi keterwakilan politik perempuan di Indonesia. Jurnal Masyarakat Indonesia, 50(1), 89–104. https://ejournal.brin.go.id/jmi/article/view/8695
Werner, E. E. (1995). Resilience in development. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 4(3), 81–85.
West, C., & Zimmerman, D. H. (1987). Doing gender. Gender & Society, 1(2), 125–151. https://doi.org/10.1177/0891243287001002002
Zimmerman, M. A. (1995). Psychological empowerment: Issues and illustrations. American Journal of Community Psychology, 23(5), 581–599. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02506983
Copyright (c) 2025 Ratriastu Ruciswandaru, Elizabeth Kristi Poerwandari
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License.
Authors who publish with this journal agree to the following terms:
- Authors retain copyright and grant the journal right of first publication with the work simultaneously licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International. that allows others to share the work with an acknowledgement of the work's authorship and initial publication in this journal.
- Authors are able to enter into separate, additional contractual arrangements for the non-exclusive distribution of the journal's published version of the work (e.g., post it to an institutional repository or publish it in a book), with an acknowledgement of its initial publication in this journal.
- Authors are permitted and encouraged to post their work online (e.g., in institutional repositories or on their website) prior to and during the submission process, as it can lead to productive exchanges, as well as earlier and greater citation of published work.
